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| 5.5 Module 2562: Section A - Application of Anatomical and Physiological Knowledge to Improve Performance. |
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After each Section tiltle there is a link to a PDF Document  with Further Information on the topic. |
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| The skeletal System |
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| General overview of the skeletal system to include the functions of the skeleton, the axial and appendicular skeleton, types of bone and cartilage. This is meant as an introductory section to the course and is not directly examined. Candidates should already have prior knowledge of the skeletal system. |
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| Joints |
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| The following joints and muscles need to be covered: · wrist: wrist flexors and extensors; · radio-ulnar: pronator teres and supinator muscle; · elbow: biceps brachii and triceps brachii; · shoulder: deltoid, latissimus dorsi, pectoralis major, subscapularis, infraspinatus, teres major and teres minor; · spine (pivot, cartilaginous and gliding). Rectus abdominus, external and internal oblique and the erector spinal group (sacrospinalis); · hip: lliopsoas, gluteus maximus, medius and minimus, adductor longus, brevis and magnus; · knee: biceps femoris, semi-membranosus and semi-tendinosus, rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus intermedius and vastus medialis; · ankle: tibialis anterior, soleus and gastrocnemius. Candidates should clearly identify the relevant joints and muscles used in their practical activities and at least one full movement analysis should be included in their Personal Performance Portfolio. Knowledge of each joint should include the following: · joint type; · the bones that articulate at the joint; · the type and range of movement that can occur at the joint (features of the joint and function of the joint should be discussed here); · the location and action of individual muscles surrounding the joint (a knowledge of origins and insertions is desirable but will not be examined); · movement analysis of typical sporting actions associated with each joint. Candidates must use their own sporting experiences as a point of reference; · identification of exercises used to improve the strength of the active muscle or group of muscles surrounding each joint utilised in the production of practical techniques; · identification of different types of muscular contraction (concentric, eccentric and isometric) used in the performance of practical techniques; · identification of a movement showing the function of a muscle as either an agonist, antagonist or fixator. |
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| Movement Production and Control |
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| Initiation of Movement |
| Relay of the nerve impulse along the motor neurone to the muscle fibre. Basic knowledge of a motor neurone is required (detailed explanation of action potentials etc. are not examined). · The sliding filament theory of muscular contraction. An outline of the major stages of this process is required but an in depth knowledge of chemical changes is not required (for example, troponin). |
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| Speed and Strength Produced |
| An analysis of the candidate's practical activity in terms of strength and speed requirements is essential. This analysis should be included in the Personal Performance Portfolio and should refer to the following: · the structure of skeletal muscle in relation to the control and type of strength produced (for example, differences in number and type of muscle fibre in each fasciculus); · the structure and function of the different muscle fibre types (slow oxidative, fast oxidative glycolytic and fast glycolytic), specifically related to the production of different speeds and degrees of strength; · the motor unit and the 'all or none' law and gradation of contraction (recruitment, wave summation and spatial summation); · the effect of a warm-up on skeletal muscle tissue in relation to speed and force of contraction produced. |
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| Motion and Movement |
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| This is an introduction to the basic concepts of Biomechanics. Interested candidates will be able to extend their knowledge in Module 2565 (A2). AS candidates are expected to be able to give only a brief mechanical analysis of movement performed to improve the efficiency of their practical techniques and this should be included in the candidate's Personal Performance Portfolio. A practical analysis of the candidate's own choice of activity should refer to the following: · Newton's Laws of Motion; · the types of motion produced (linear, angular or general); · the effect of size of force, direction of the force and the position of application of force on a body; · centre of mass; the effect of changes in the position of the centre of mass and the area of support when applied to practical techniques; · the effects of the length of lever and angle of pull in relation to the strength and speed of movement produced. Candidates have the opportunity to integrate knowledge (already gained at Key Stage 4) of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, with a more advanced level of study. This leads to a greater understanding of the anatomy and physiology of the body in relation to physical performance. |
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| The heart |
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| The internal and external structure of the heart, to cover the heart chambers and valves, all blood vessels attached to the heart, the cardiac muscle cell, the heart wall and pericardium. |
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| Resting Heart Rate |
| The cardiac cycle (diastole and systole), linked to the conduction system of the heart (Sinuatrial node, Atrioventricular node, Bundle of His and Purkinje fibres). Definitions and resting values for stroke volume, heart rate and cardiac output. |
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| Heart Rate Response to Exercise |
| How changes in heart rate are regulated to include neural, hormonal and intrinsic factors. To appreciate the changes in heart rate, stroke volume and cardiac output during sub-maximal and maximal activity. |
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| Control of blood supply(at rest and during exercise) |
| Knowledge of the pulmonary and systemic circulatory networks and the factors linked with venous return. Distribution of cardiac output at rest and during exercise (the vascular shunt mechanism), and the role of the vasomotor centre. Detail should include the involvement of arterioles and pre-capillary sphincters. How carbon dioxide and oxygen are carried within the vascular system. Blood flow, blood velocity and blood pressure and the effects of exercise on blood pressure. The effects of a warm-up and cool-down period on the vascular system. |
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| Structure of the lungs |
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| Structure of the nasal passages, trachea, bronchii, bronchioles and alveoli. The lobes of the lungs and the pleural membrane. |
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| Respiration at Rest |
| The mechanics of breathing and the respiratory muscle involved, to include diaphragm, external intercostals. Respiratory volumes at rest (definitions and values). Gaseous exchange at the lungs and tissue respiration. An awareness of partial pressure is required but candidates will not be expected to provide specific respiratory pressures. Respiratory Response to Exercise · Identification of changes in the mechanics of breathing to include additional muscles involved (sternocleidomastoid and pectoralis minor) and the active nature of expiration (internal intercostals and abdominal muscles). Subsequent changes in lung volumes with typical values for sub-maximal and maximal work. How changes are regulated by the respiratory centre (both neural and chemical control). Changes in gaseous exchange at the lungs and tissue respiration (increased diffusion gradient and accelerated dissociation of oxy-haemoglobin). The effect of altitude on the respiratory system. |
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